Islam's historical development resulted in major political, economic, and military effects inside and outside the Islamic world . Islam's historical development resulted in major political, economic, and military effects inside and outside the Islamic world. Within a century of Muhammad's first recitations of the Qur'an , an Islamic empire stretched from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to Central Asia in the east. Within a century of Muhammad's first recitations of the Koran, the Islamic empire stretched from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to Central Asia in the east. This new polity soon broke into civil war, and successor states fought each other and outside forces. This new Polity soon broke into civil war, and successor states fought each other and outside forces. However, Islam continued to spread into regions like Africa , the Indian subcontinent , and Southeast Asia . However, Islam continued to spread into regions like Africa, the Indian Subcontinent, and Southeast Asia. The Islamic civilization was one of the most advanced in the world during the Middle Ages , but was surpassed by Europe with the economic and military growth of the West. The Islamic civilization was one of the most advanced in the world during the Middle Ages, but was surpassed by Europe with the economic and military growth of the West. During the 18th and 19th centuries, Islamic dynasties such as the Ottomans and Mughals fell under the sway of European imperial powers. During the 18th and 19th Centuries, Islamic Dynasties such as the Ottomans and Mughals fell under the Sway of European imperial powers. In the 20th century new religious and political movements and newfound wealth in the Islamic world led to both rebirth and conflict. [ 78 ] In the 20th century new religious and political movements and newfound wealth in the Islamic world led to both rebirth and conflict. [78]
Rise of the caliphate and civil war (632–750) Rise of the Caliphate and civil war (632-750)
Further information: Succession to Muhammad , Muslim conquests , and Battle of Karbala Further information: Succession to Muhammad, the Muslim Conquests, and the Battle of Karbala
Muhammad began preaching Islam at Mecca before migrating to Medina , from where he united the tribes of Arabia into a singular Arab Muslim religious polity. Muhammad began preaching Islam at Mecca before Migrating to Medina, from where he united the tribes of Arabia into a singular Arab Muslim religious Polity. He made his last farewell sermon at the age of 63 in the year 632 and died 72 days later. [ 79 ] Right after his death disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. Umar ibn al-Khattab , a prominent companion of Muhammad, nominated Abu Bakr , who was Muhammad's intimate friend and collaborator. He made his last farewell Sermon at the age of 63 in the year 632 and died 72 days later. [79] Right after his death disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. Umar ibn al-Khattab, a prominent companion of Muhammad, nominated Abu Bakr, who was Muhammad's intimate friend and Collaborator. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first caliph . Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first caliph. This choice was disputed by some of Muhammad's companions [ citation needed ] , who held that Ali ibn Abi Talib , cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, had been designated his successor. [ citation needed ] Abu Bakr's immediate task was to avenge a recent defeat by Byzantine (or Eastern Roman Empire ) forces, although he first had to put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an episode known as the Ridda wars , or "Wars of Apostasy". [ 80 ] This choice was disputed by some of Muhammad's Companions [citation needed], who held that Ali ibn Abi Talib, cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, had been designated his successor. [Citation needed] Abu Bakr's immediate task was to avenge a recent defeat by Byzantine (or Eastern Roman Empire) forces, although he first had to put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an episode known as the Ridda wars, or "Wars of Apostasy". [80]
His death in 634 resulted in the succession of Umar as the caliph, followed by Uthman ibn al-Affan and Ali ibn Abi Talib. His death in 634 resulted in the succession of Umar as the caliph, followed by Uthman ibn al-Affan and Ali ibn Abi Talib. These four are known as al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn (" Rightly Guided Caliphs "). These four are known as al-Khilafat al-rāshidūn ( "Rightly Guided Caliphs"). Under them, the territory under Muslim rule expanded deeply into Persian and Byzantine territories. [ 81 ] Under them, the territory under Muslim rule expanded deeply into Persian and Byzantine territories. [81]
When Umar was assassinated in 644, the election of Uthman as successor was met with increasing opposition. When Umar was assassinated in 644, the election of Uthman as successor was met with increasing opposition. In 656, Uthman was also killed, and Ali assumed the position of caliph. In 656, Uthman was also killed, and Ali assumed the position of caliph. After fighting off opposition in the first civil war (the "First Fitna"), Ali was assassinated by Kharijites in 661. After fighting off opposition in the first civil war (the "First Fitna"), Ali was assassinated by Kharijites in 661. Following this, Mu'awiyah , who was governor of the Levant , seized power and began the Umayyad dynasty . [ 82 ] Although there was discord, the period until the death of Ali in 661 is remembered as a kind of golden age by some [ who? ] Muslims. Following this, Mu'aawiyah, who was governor of the Levant, seized power and began the Umayyad dynasty. [82] Although there was discord, the period until the death of Ali in 661 is remembered as a kind of golden age by some [ who?] Muslims. It was the Age of the Rashidun or "rightly-guided ones," when Muhammad's close companions led the community of Muslims. [ 79 ] It was the Age of the Rashidun or "rightly-guided ones," when Muhammad's close Companions led the community of Muslims. [79]
These disputes over religious and political leadership would give rise to schism in the Muslim community. These disputes over religious and political leadership would give rise to Schism in the Muslim community. The majority accepted the legitimacy of the three rulers prior to Ali, and became known as Sunnis . The majority accepted the Legitimacy of the three rulers prior to Ali, and became known as Sunnis. A minority disagreed, and believed that Ali was the only rightful successor; they became known as the Shi'a . [ 83 ] After Mu'awiyah's death in 680, conflict over succession broke out again in a civil war known as the " Second Fitna ". A minority disagreed, and believed that Ali was the only rightful successor; they became known as the Shi'a. [83] After Mu'awiyah's death in 680, conflict over succession broke out again in a civil war known as the "Second Fitna ". Afterward, the Umayyad dynasty prevailed for seventy years, and was able to conquer the Maghrib and Al-Andalus (the Iberian Peninsula , former Visigothic Hispania ) and the Narbonnese Gaul in the west as well as expand Muslim territory into Sindh and the fringes of Central Asia . [ 84 ] While the Muslim-Arab elite engaged in conquest, some devout Muslims began to question the piety of indulgence in a worldly life, emphasizing, rather, poverty, humility, and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires. Afterward, the Umayyad dynasty prevailed for seventy years, and was able to conquer the Maghrib and al-Andalus (the Iberian Peninsula, former Visigothic Hispania) and the Narbonnese Gaul in the west as well as expand Muslim territory into Sindh and the fringes of Central asia. [84] While the Muslim-Arab elite engaged in Conquest, some devout Muslims began to question the Piety of indulgence in a Worldly life, emphasizing, rather, poverty, Humility, and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires. Devout Muslim ascetic exemplars such as Hasan al-Basri would inspire a movement that would evolve into Sufism . [ 85 ] Devout Muslim ascetic exemplars such as Hasan al-Basri would inspire a movement that would Evolve into Sufism. [85]
For the Umayyad aristocracy, Islam was viewed as a religion for Arabs only; [ 86 ] the economy of the Umayyad empire was based on the assumption that a majority of non-Muslims ( Dhimmis ) would pay taxes to the minority of Muslim Arabs. For the Umayyad aristocracy, Islam was viewed as a religion for Arabs only; [86] The economy of the Umayyad empire was based on the assumption that a majority of non-Muslims (Dhimmis) would pay taxes to the minority of Muslim Arabs. A non-Arab who wanted to convert to Islam was supposed to first become a client of an Arab tribe. A non-Arab who wanted to convert to Islam was supposed to first become a client of an Arab tribe. Even after conversion, these new Muslims ( mawali ) did not achieve social and economic equality with the Arabs. Even after conversion, these new Muslims (mawali) did not achieve the social and economic equality with the Arabs. The descendants of Muhammad's uncle Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib rallied discontented mawali , poor Arabs, and some Shi'a against the Umayyads and overthrew them with the help of their propagandist and general Abu Muslim , inaugurating the Abbasid dynasty in 750. [ 87 ] Under the Abbasids, Islamic civilization flourished in the " Islamic Golden Age ", with its capital at the cosmopolitan city of Baghdad . [ 88 ] The descendants of Muhammad's uncle Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib rallied discontented mawali, poor Arabs, and some Shi'a against the Umayyads and overthrew them with the help of their propagandist and general Abu Muslim, inaugurating the Abbasid dynasty in 750. [87] Under the Abbasids, Islamic civilization flourished in the "Islamic Golden Age", with its capital at the cosmopolitan city of Baghdad. [88]
Golden Age (750–1258) Golden Age (750-1258)
Main article: Islamic Golden Age Main article: Islamic Golden Age
Further information: Muslim Agricultural Revolution Further information: Muslim Agricultural Revolution
By the late 9th century, the Abbasid caliphate began to fracture as various regions gained increasing levels of autonomy. By the late 9th century, the Abbasid Caliphate began to fracture as various regions gained increasing levels of autonomy. Across North Africa, the Middle East and Central Asia, emirates formed as provinces broke away. Across North Africa, the Middle East and Central Asia, emirates formed as provinces broke away. The monolithic Arab empire gave way to a more religiously homogenized Muslim world where the Shia Fatimids contested even the religious authority of the caliphate. The monolithic Arab empire gave way to a more religiously homogenized Muslim world where the Shia Fatimids contested even the religious authority of the Caliphate. In the 10th century the powerful Ghaznavids conquered the Persian region and a large part of the Indian subcontinent in the name of Islam. In the 10th century the powerful Ghaznavids conquered the Persian region and a large part of the Indian Subcontinent in the name of Islam. They were replaced by the Ghurids in the 12th century. They were replaced by the Ghurids in the 12th century. By 1055 the Seljuq Turks had eliminated the Abbasids as a military power, nevertheless they continued to respect the caliph's titular authority. [ 89 ] During this time expansion of the Muslim world continued, by both conquest and peaceful proselytism even as both Islam and Muslim trade networks were extending into sub-Saharan West Africa , Central Asia , Volga Bulgaria and the Malay archipelago . [ 2 ] By 1055 the Seljuq Turks had eliminated the Abbasids as a military power, Nevertheless they continued to respect the caliph's titular authority. [89] During this time expansion of the Muslim world continued, by both Conquest and peaceful proselytism even as both Islam and Muslim trade networks were extending into the sub-Saharan West Africa, Central Asia, Volga Bulgaria and the Malay archipelago. [2]
The Golden Age saw new legal, philosophical, and religious developments. The Golden Age saw new legal, philosophical, and religious developments. The major hadith collections were compiled and the four modern Sunni Madh'habs were established. The major hadith collections were compiled and the four modern Sunni Madh'habs were established. Islamic law was advanced greatly by the efforts of the early 9th century jurist al-Shafi'i ; he codified a method to establish the reliability of hadith, a topic which had been a locus of dispute among Islamic scholars. [ 90 ] Philosophers Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and Al-Farabi sought to incorporate Greek principles into Islamic theology, while others like the 11th century theologian Abu Hamid al-Ghazzali argued against them and ultimately prevailed. [ 91 ] Finally, Sufism and Shi'ism both underwent major changes in the 9th century. Sufism became a full-fledged movement that had moved towards mysticism and away from its ascetic roots, while Shi'ism split due to disagreements over the succession of Imams. [ 92 ] Islamic law was advanced greatly by the efforts of the early 9th century Jurist al-Shafi'i; he codified a method to establish the reliability of hadith, a topic which had been a locus of dispute among Islamic scholars. [90] Philosophers Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and Al-Farabi sought to Incorporate Greek principles into Islamic theology, while others like the 11th century theologian Abu Hamid al-Ghazzali Argued against them and ultimately prevailed. [91] Finally, Sufism and Shi'ism both underwent major changes in the 9th century. Sufism became a full-fledged movement that had moved towards mysticism and away from its ascetic roots, while Shi'ism split due to disagreements over the succession of Imams. [92]
The spread of the Islamic dominion induced hostility among medieval ecclesiastical Christian authors who saw Islam as an adversary in the light of the large numbers of new Muslim converts. The spread of the Islamic dominion induced hostility among medieval Ecclesiastical Christian authors who saw Islam as an adversary in the light of the large numbers of new Muslim converts. This opposition resulted in polemical treatises which depicted Islam as the religion of the antichrist and of Muslims as libidinous and subhuman. [ 93 ] In the medieval period , a few Arab philosophers like the poet Al-Ma'arri adopted a critical approach to Islam, and the Jewish philosopher Maimonides contrasted Islamic views of morality to Jewish views that he himself elaborated. [ 94 ] This opposition resulted in polemical Treatises which depicted Islam as the religion of the Antichrist and of Muslims as libidinous and subhuman. [93] In the medieval period, a few Arab Philosophers like the poet Al-Ma'arri adopted a critical approach to Islam, and the Jewish philosopher Maimonides contrasted Islamic views of Morality to Jewish views that he himself elaborated. [94]
Crusades, Reconquista and Mongol invasion Crusades, Reconquista and Mongol invasion
Main articles: Crusades and Reconquista Main articles: Crusades and Reconquista
Further information: Mongol invasion of Central Asia and Ilkhanate Further information: Mongol invasion of Central Asia and Ilkhanate
Artistic depiction of the Battle of Hattin in 1187, where Jerusalem was recaptured by Saladin's Ayyubid forces Artistic depiction of the Battle of Hattin in 1187, where Jerusalem was recaptured by Saladin's Ayyubid forces
Starting in the 9th century, Muslim conquests in the West began to be reversed. Starting in the 9th century, Muslim Conquests in the West began to be reversed. The Reconquista was launched against Muslim principalities in Iberia , and Muslim Italian possessions were lost to the Normans . The Reconquista was launched against Muslim principalities in Iberia, and Muslim Italian Possessions were lost to the Normans. From the 11th century onwards alliances of European Christian kingdoms mobilized to launch a series of wars known as the Crusades , aimed at reversing Muslim military conquests within the eastern part of the former Roman Empire , especially in the Holy Land . From the 11th century onwards alliances of European Christian kingdoms mobilized to launch a series of wars known as the Crusades, aimed at reversing the Muslim Conquests military within the eastern part of the former Roman Empire, especially in the Holy Land. Initially successful in this aim, and establishing the Crusader states , these gains were later reversed by subsequent Muslim generals such as Saladin , who recaptured Jerusalem in 1187. [ 95 ] Initially successful in this aim, and Establishing the Crusader states, these gains were later reversed by subsequent Muslim generals such as Saladin, who recaptured Jerusalem in 1187. [95]
In the east the Mongol Empire put an end to the Abbassid dynasty at the Battle of Baghdad in 1258 , as they overran the Muslim lands in a series of invasions. In the east the Mongol Empire put an end to the Abbassid dynasty at the Battle of Baghdad in 1258, as they overran the Muslim lands in a series of invasions. Meanwhile in Egypt, the slave-soldier Mamluks took control in an uprising in 1250 [ 96 ] and in alliance with the Golden Horde halted the Mongol armies at the Battle of Ain Jalut . Meanwhile in Egypt, the slave-soldier Mamluks took control in an uprising in 1250 [96] and in alliance with the Golden Horde halted the Mongol armies at the Battle of Ain Goliath. Over the next century the Mongol Khanates converted to Islam and this religious and cultural absorption ushered in a new age of Mongol-Islamic synthesis that shaped the further spread of Islam in central Asia, eastern Europe and the Indian subcontinent . Over the next century the Mongol Khanates converted to Islam and this religious and cultural absorption ushered in a new age of Mongol-Islamic synthesis that shaped the further spread of Islam in central Asia, eastern Europe and the Indian Subcontinent. The Crimean Khanate was one of the strongest powers in Eastern Europe until the end of the 17th century. [ 97 ] The Crimean Khanate was one of the strongest powers in Eastern Europe until the end of the 17th century. [97]
The Black Death ravaged much of the Islamic world in the mid-14th century. [ 98 ] It is probable that the Mongols and merchant caravans making use of the opportunities of free passage offered by the Pax Mongolica inadvertently brought the plague from Central Asia to the Middle East and Europe. [ 99 ] Plague epidemics kept returning to the Islamic world up to the 19th century. [ 100 ] The Black Death ravaged much of the Islamic world in the mid-14th century. [98] It is probable that the Mongols and merchant caravans making use of the opportunities of free passage offered by the Pax mongolica inadvertently brought the plague from Central Asia to the middle East and Europe. [99] Plague Epidemics kept returning to the Islamic world up to the 19th century. [100]
Islamic dynasties (1030–1918) Islamic Dynasties (1030-1918)
The Seljuk Turks conquered Abbassid lands, adopted Islam and become the de facto rulers of the caliphate. The Seljuk Turks conquered lands Abbassid, adopted Islam and become the de facto rulers of the Caliphate. They captured Anatolia by defeating the Byzantines at the Battle of Manzikert , thereby precipitating the call for Crusades. They captured Anatolia by defeating the Byzantines at the Battle of Manzikert, thereby precipitating the call for Crusades. They fell apart in the second half of the 12th century giving rise to various semi-autonomous Islamic dynasties such as the powerful Ayyubids who conquered Egypt and a Jerusalem in the name of Islam. They fell apart in the second half of the 12th century giving rise to various semi-autonomous Islamic Dynasties such as the powerful Ayyubids who conquered Egypt and a Jerusalem in the name of Islam. In the 13th and 14th centuries the Ottoman Empire (named after Osman I ) emerged from among these "Ghazi emirates " and established itself after a string of conquests that included the Balkans , parts of Greece , and western Anatolia. In the 13th and 14th Centuries the Ottoman Empire (named after Osman I) emerged from among these "Ghazi emirates" and established itself after a string of Conquests that included the Balkans, parts of Greece, and western Anatolia. In 1453 under Mehmed II the Ottomans laid siege to Constantinople , the capital of Byzantium, which succumbed shortly thereafter, having been overwhelmed by a far greater number of Ottoman troops and to a lesser extent, cannonry . [ 101 ] In 1453 under Mehmed II the Ottomans laid siege to Constantinople, the capital of Byzantium, which succumbed shortly thereafter, having been overwhelmed by a far greater number of Ottoman troops and to a lesser extent, cannonry. [101]
The Taj Mahal was built by Muslim rulers of the Mughal Empire in Agra , India . The Taj Mahal was built by Muslim rulers of the Mughal Empire in Agra, India.
Beginning in the 13th century, Sufism underwent a transformation, largely as a result of the efforts of al-Ghazzali to legitimize and reorganize the movement. Beginning in the 13th century, Sufism underwent a transformation, largely as a result of the efforts of al-Ghazzali to legitimize and reorganize the movement. He developed the model of the Sufi order—a community of spiritual teachers and students. [ 102 ] Also of importance to Sufism was the creation of the Masnavi , a collection of mystical poetry by the 13th century Persian poet Rumi . He developed the model of the Sufi order-a community of spiritual teachers and students. [102] Also of importance to Sufism was the creation of the Masnavi, a collection of mystical poetry by the 13th century Persian poet Rumi. The Masnavi had a profound influence on the development of Sufi religious thought; to many Sufis it is second in importance only to the Qur'an. [ 103 ] From the 14th century to the 16th century much of the eastern Islamic world was experiencing another golden age under the Timurid dynasty . The Masnavi had a profound influence on the development of Sufi religious thought; to many Sufis it is second in importance only to the Koran. [103] From the 14th century to the 16th century much of the eastern Islamic world was experiencing another golden age under the Timurid dynasty. In the early 16th century, the Safavid dynasty assumed control in Persia and established Shi'a Islam as an official religion there, and despite periodic setbacks, the Safavids remained in power for two centuries until being usurped by the Hotaki dynasty in the early-18th century. In the early 16th century, the Safavid dynasty assumed control in Persia and established Shi'a Islam as an official religion there, and despite periodic setbacks, the Safavids remained in power for two Centuries until being usurped by the Hotaki dynasty in the early-18th century. Meanwhile, Mamluk Egypt fell to the Ottomans in 1517, who then launched a European campaign which reached as far as the gates of Vienna in 1529. [ 104 ] Meanwhile, Mamluk Egypt fell to the Ottomans in 1517, who then launched a European campaign which reached as far as the gates of Vienna in 1529. [104]
After the invasion of Persia and sack of Baghdad by the Mongols in the mid 13th century, Delhi became the most important cultural centre of the Muslim east. [ 105 ] Many Islamic dynasties ruled parts of the Indian subcontinent starting with the Ghaznavids in the 10th century. After the invasion of Persia and sack of Baghdad by the Mongols in the mid 13th century, Delhi became the most important cultural centers of the Muslim east. [105] Many Islamic Dynasties ruled parts of the Indian Subcontinent starting with the Ghaznavids in the 10th century . The prominent ones included the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526) and the Mughal Empire (1526–1857). The prominent ones included the Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526) and the Mughal Empire (1526-1857). These empires helped in the spread of Islam in South Asia , but by the early-18th century the Sikh Maratha Empire was becoming the pre-eminent power in northern India until they were weaken by the Durrani Empire in the mid-18th century. Empires These helped in the spread of Islam in South Asia, but by the early-18th century the Sikh Maratha Empire was becoming the pre-eminent power in northern India until they were weaken by the Durrani Empire in the mid-18th century.
Around the 18th century, despite attempts at modernization, the Ottoman empire had begun to feel threatened by European economic and military advantages. Around the 18th century, despite attempts at Modernization, the Ottoman empire had begun to feel threatened by European economic and military advantages. It was during the 18th century that the Wahhabi movement took hold in Saudi Arabia. It was during the 18th century that the Wahhabi movement took hold in Saudi Arabia. Founded by the preacher Ibn Abd al-Wahhab , Wahhabism is a fundamentalist ideology that condemns practices like Sufism and the veneration of saints as un-Islamic. [ 106 ] Founded by the preacher Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Wahhabism is a Fundamentalist ideology that condemns practices like Sufism and the veneration of saints as un-Islamic. [106]
By the 19th century the British Empire had formally ended the last Mughal dynasty, [ 107 ] and overthrew the Muslim-ruled Kingdom of Mysore . By the 19th century the British Empire had formally ended the last of the Mughal dynasty, [107] and overthrew the Muslim-ruled Kingdom of Mysore. In the 19th century, the rise of nationalism resulted in Greece declaring and winning independence in 1829, with several Balkan states following suit after the Ottomans suffered defeat in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878 . In the 19th century, the rise of nationalism resulted in Greece declaring and winning independence in 1829, with several Balkan states following suit after the Ottomans suffered defeat in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878. The Ottoman era came to a close at the end of World War I and the Caliphate was abolished in 1924. [ 108 ] [ 109 ] The Ottoman era came to a close at the end of World War I and the Caliphate was abolished in 1924. [108] [109]
In the 19th century, the Salafi , Deobandi and Barelwi movements were initiated. In the 19th century, the Salafi, Deobandi and Barelwi movements were initiated.
Modern times (1918–present) Modern times (1918-present)
Further information: Fall of the Ottoman Empire , Arab Revolt , Arab–Israeli conflict , and Iranian revolution Further information: Fall of the Ottoman Empire, Arab Revolt, the Arab-Israeli conflict, and Iranian revolution
By the early years of the 20th century, most of the Muslim world outside the Ottoman empire had been absorbed into the empires of non-Islamic European powers. By the early years of the 20th century, most of the Muslim world outside the Ottoman empire had been absorbed into the Empires of the non-Islamic European powers. After World War I losses, nearly all of the Ottoman empire was also parceled out as European protectorates or spheres of influence . After World War I losses, nearly all of the Ottoman empire was also parceled out as European protectorates or spheres of influence. In the course of the 20th century, most of these European-ruled territories became independent, and new issues such as oil wealth and relations with the State of Israel have assumed prominence. [ 110 ] In the course of the 20th century, most of these European-ruled territories became independent, and new issues such as oil wealth and relations with the State of Israel have assumed Prominence. [110]
During this time, many Muslims migrated, as indentured servants, from mostly India and Indonesia to the Caribbean , forming the largest Muslim populations by percentage in the Americas . [ 111 ] Additionally, the resulting urbanization and increase in trade in Africa brought Muslims to settle in new areas and spread their faith. During this time, many Muslims migrated, as indentured servants, mostly from India and Indonesia to the Caribbean, forming the largest Muslim populations by percentage in the Americas. [111] Additionally, the resulting urbanization and increase in trade in Africa brought Muslims to settle in new areas and spread their faith. As a result, Islam in sub-Saharan Africa likely doubled between 1869 and 1914. [ 112 ] The Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), consisting of Muslim countries , was formally established in September 1969 after the burning of the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem . [ 113 ] As a result, Islam in sub-Saharan Africa likely doubled between 1869 and 1914. [112] The Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), consisting of Muslim countries, was formally established in September 1969 after the burning of the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem. [113]
Islamic revival and Islamist movements Islamic revival and Islamist movements
Further information: Islamic revival and Islamism Further information: Islamic revival and Islamism
The 20th century saw the creation of many new Islamic "revivalist" movements. The 20th century saw the creation of many new Islamic "revivalist" movements. Groups such as the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt and Jamaat-e-Islami in Pakistan advocate a totalistic and theocratic alternative to secular political ideologies. Groups such as the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt and Jamaat-e-Islami in Pakistan advocate a totalistic and theocratic alternative to secular political ideologies. Sometimes called Islamist , they see Western cultural values as a threat, and promote Islam as a comprehensive solution to every public and private question of importance. Sometimes called Islamist, they see Western cultural values as a threat, and promote Islam as a comprehensive solution to every public and private question of importance.
In countries like Iran revolutionary movement replaced secular regime with an Islamic state , while transnational groups like Osama bin Laden 's al-Qaeda engage in terrorism to further their goals. In countries like Iran's revolutionary movement replaced secular regimes with an Islamic state, while transnational groups like Osama bin Laden 's al-Qaeda engage in terrorism to further their goals. In contrast, Liberal Islam is a movement that attempts to reconcile religious tradition with modern norms of secular governance and human rights . In contrast, Liberal Islam is a movement that attempts to reconcile religious tradition with modern norms of secular governance and human rights. Its supporters say that there are multiple ways to read Islam's sacred texts, and stress the need to leave room for "independent thought on religious matters". [ 114 ] Its supporters say that there are multiple ways to read Islam's sacred texts, and stress the need to leave room for "independent thought on religious matters". [114]
Modern criticism of Islam includes accusations that Islam is intolerant of criticism and that Islamic law is too hard on apostates from Islam . Modern criticism of Islam includes Accusations that Islam is intolerant of criticism and that Islamic law is too hard on apostates from Islam. Critics like Ibn Warraq question the morality of the Qu'ran, saying that its contents justify the mistreatment of women and encourage antisemitic remarks by Muslim theologians. [ 115 ] Such claims have been challenged by many Muslim scholars and writers including Fazlur Rahman Malik , [ 116 ] Syed Ameer Ali , [ 117 ] Ahmed Deedat , [ 118 ] Yusuf Estes , [ 119 ] as well as Zakir Naik and others of Peace TV , which is a global Islamic satellite channel intended to correct the misconceptions about Islam. Critics like Ibn Warraq question the Morality of the Qu'ran, saying that its contents justify the mistreatment of women and encourage antisemitic remarks by Muslim Theologians. [115] Such claims have been challenged by many Muslim scholars and writers including Fazlur Rahman Malik, [ 116] Syed Ameer Ali, [117] Ahmed Deedat, [118] Yusuf Estes, [119] as well as Zakir Naik and others of Peace TV, which is a global Islamic satellite channel intended to correct the misconceptions about Islam.
Others like Daniel Pipes and Martin Kramer focus more on criticizing the spread of Islamic fundamentalism , a danger they feel has been ignored. [ 120 ] Montgomery Watt and Norman Daniel dismiss many of the criticisms as the product of old myths and polemics. [ 121 ] The rise of Islamophobia , according to Carl Ernst , had contributed to the negative views about Islam and Muslims in the West. [ 122 ] Others like Daniel Pipes and Martin Kramer, focus more on criticizing the spread of Islamic fundamentalism, a danger they feel has been ignored. [120] Montgomery Watt and Norman Daniel dismiss many of the criticisms as the product of old myths and Polemics. [121] The rise of Islamophobia, according to Carl Ernst, had contributed to the negative views about Islam and Muslims in the West. [122]
Pascal Bruckner and Paul Berman on the other hand have entered the "Islam in Europe" debate. Pascal Bruckner and Paul Berman on the other hand have entered the "Islam in Europe" debate. Berman identifies a "reactionary turn in the intellectual world" represented by Western scholars who idealize Islam. [ 123 ] Berman identifies a "reactionary turn in the intellectual world" represented by Western scholars of Islam who idealize. [123]
ariandi8kiya